The United States Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1825 to manage relations between the American government and Native Americans and to negotiate Treaties to foster trade and end conflicts. Many of these Treaties were unfair and resulted in the United States acquiring vast swathes of land across the American West for agriculture and settlement, forcibly removing Native American groups to reservations, often thousands of miles away from their ancestral lands.

Between 1821 and 1842, the Bureau and its predecessor, the Office for Indian Trade, commissioned artists to paint oil portraits of prominent Indigenous leaders as they gathered to make Treaty or to petition against earlier Treaties. The leaders who travelled to Washington, DC often followed a similar route. Having travelled to Washington with a government officer, they would then be entertained in the city, meeting Representatives from Congress and other officials; occasionally they would also have an audience with the President.  Gifts would regularly be exchanged, with leaders receiving Treaty medals from the Bureau, from Congress or from the President. Finally, often wearing the medal, they would visit the artist Charles Bird King (1785–1862), who would paint a portrait. By the 1830s, delegations would also be taken around King’s ‘Indian Gallery’ to view his collection of portraits of Native Americans.

Those who did not visit Washington were instead painted by travelling artists such as Peter Rhindisbacher (1806–34) and James Otto Lewis (1799–1858). For instance, delegates to the Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 were painted by Lewis, who had travelled to Lake Michigan between 1823 and 1834 with Bureau officials to observe and record meetings. Lewis, commissioned by the Bureau, published some of his portraits in 1835-6 under the title The Aboriginal Port Folio, the first collection of lithographed portraits of Native Americans. His pictures were then copied by King for his Gallery and a selection of these were lithographed in preparation for the present work, History of the Indian Tribes of North America (1836–44).

King produced over 140 portraits of Native Americans for his Gallery. He later gave his collection to the National Institute, which passed them to the Smithsonian Institution in 1858. Seven years later, a fire destroyed many of the original paintings, leaving the lithographs in the History as their best record. By comparing King’s lithographs to surviving drawings in the Smithsonian collection and to photography of the Native American leaders he painted, it looks as though King amended his portraits for his intended American and European audience. Rather than depicting people realistically, he devised a composite facial structure so that all those he painted adhered to nineteenth-century American and European stereotypes of how a Native American person ‘should’ look. Despite this, many of the surviving portraits provide accurate details of different Native American dress and serve to be among first American depictions in colour of Native Americans from the Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest.

The letterpress for the History of the Indian Tribes of North America was a collaboration between Thomas McKenney (1785–1859), the Superintendent of the Bureau of Indian Affairs until 1830, and James Hall (1793–1868), a noted writer specialising in the American settlement of the Great Plains. Their biographical sketches used Bureau reports on contemporary figures who had come to make Treaty, or accounts of those deceased Native Americans who were already well known, such as Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) (1742–1807) and Pocahontas (Matoaka) (c.1596–1617). McKenney and others in the United States felt that, with the continued advancement of American settlement westwards, it was only a matter of time until the Indigenous population either assimilated with American society or died out. As such, the History was to serve as the ultimate record of the Indigenous population of North America before this occurred. The biographies often contain pejorative or racialised language and demonstrate the prejudices of the authors, regularly falling back on longstanding notions of the ‘Noble Savage’, but they also provide a wealth of information on the lives of Indigenous figures and Native American customs in the early nineteenth century. The accounts were accompanied by lithographs of King and Lewis’s portraits. These were made at Philadelphia, which by the 1830s had become an important site for lithography in the United States, by the firm of John T. Bowen (c.1801–56). Several of the plates were signed by Alfred Hoffy (1796–1872), Bowen’s frequent collaborator. The work was published in parts by the Philadelphia publisher F. W. Greenough and issued to subscribers from 1836 until 1842. A London edition, issued by the publishers Campbell & Burns and with lithographs by Charles Hullmandel, followed in 1837. The third volume of the series, which contained McKenney's essay on the history of contact between Native Americans and Europeans, was published at Philadelphia in 1844 by Daniel Rice and James G. Clark.

A list of subscribers' signatures at the end of the third volume shows that William IV, his consort Queen Adelaide, Victoria, Duchess of Kent and Princess Victoria (later Queen Victoria) were all subscribers to the History. The set in the Royal Library was bound for Queen Victoria, probably by James Mackenzie, the Queen’s preferred bookbinder in the 1840s.

Today, McKenney and Hall’s History has been used by Native American communities and scholars to identify and describe significant figures whose names may otherwise have been lost due to the upheaval of the period. It has also allowed Indigenous communities to reconnect with cultural practices and viewpoints that had been at risk of extinction due to government policies up to the middle of the twentieth century.

Lithographs in this volume (titles as printed are given in italics):

Frontispiece: Hunting the Buffaloe – After a drawing by Peter Rhindisbacher (1806–34). Lith. 1838

Ho-po-eth-le-yo-ho-lo – portrait of Opothelyahola ‘Good shouting child’ (c. 1788–1863). Muskogee (Creek). Lith. 1834.

Yoholo-Micco – portrait of Yoholo Micco (otherwise Chief Eufaula) (d. c. 1836). Eufaula. Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Mistippee – portrait of Mistippee (European name: Benjamin) (active c. 1826). Eufaula. Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Paddy-Carr. Creek Interpreter – portrait of Paddy Carr (no Indigenous name can be sourced) (b. c. 1802). Muskogee (Creek). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Timpoochee Barnard. An Uchee Warrior – portrait of Timpoochee Barnard (c. 1774–c. 1834). Yuchi (Tsoyaha/Coyaha)—a constituent people of Muskogee (Creek) Confederacy. Lithograph signed ‘M. O’C.’, 1838.

Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiah. Or Black Hawk A Saukie Brave – portrait of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiah (Mahkatêwe-meshi-kêhkêhkwa) ‘Black Hawk’ (1767-1838). Sauk (Othâkîawa). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Kish-ke-kosh. A Fox Brave – portrait of Kishkekosh ‘Man with One Leg’. Meskwaki (Fox). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Wa-pel-la. Chief of the Musquakees – portrait of Wapello (1787–1842). Meskwaki (Fox). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Ap-pa-noo-se. Saukie Chief – portrait of Appanoose ‘Chief when a Child’. Sauk (Othâkîawa)/Meskwaki (Fox). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Tai-o-mah. A Musquakee Brave – portrait of Taimah ‘Sudden Crash of Thunder’ (also known in accounts as ‘Chief Tama’) (1790–1830). Meskwaki (Fox). Lith., 1838.

Not-chi-mi-ne. An Ioway Chief – portrait of Notchininga ‘No Heart’. Baxoje (Iowa). Brother of Mahaska ‘White Cloud’ (1784–1834). Lith., 1838.

Keokuk. Chief of the Sacs and Foxes – portrait of Keokuk (c. 1780–1848). Sauk (Othâkîawa). Lith. 1838.

Ne-o-mon-ne. An Ioway Chief – portrait of Neomonni ‘Rain Cloud’. Baxoje (Iowa). Lith. 1838.

Kee-shes-wa. A Fox Chief – portrait of Keesheswa ‘The Sun’. Meskwaki (Fox). Lith. 1838.

Tah-ro-hon. An Ioway Warrior – portrait of Tahrohon ‘A Lot of Deer’. Baxoje (Iowa). Lith. 1838.

Wat-che-mon-ne. An Ioway Chief – portrait of Watchemonne (an honorary title following a successful raid on an Osage camp). Birth name unknown but known to Americans as ‘the Orator’. Baxoje (Iowa). Lith. 1838.

Tustennuggee Emathla or Jim Boy. A Creek Chief – portrait of Tustenuggee Emathla (also known as ‘Jim Boy’) (b. c. 1793). Muskogee (Creek). Tustenaggee, ‘warrior’, Emathla, an honorific title approximating ‘disciplinarian’. Lith. 1838.

Me-na-wa. A Creek Warrior – portrait of Menawa (birth name Hothlepoya) (c. 1765–c. 1838). Muskogee (Creek). Lith. 1837.

Wa-baun-see. A Pottawatomie Chief – portrait of Wabanzi (or Waabaanizii/Waubonsie) ‘He Causes Paleness’ (c. 1760–c. 1848). Potawatomi. Lith. 1838.

Chittee Yoholo. A Seminole Chief – portrait of Chittee Yoholo ‘Snake that Makes a Noise’. Seminole. Lith. 1838.

Me-te-a. A Pottwatomie Chief – portrait of Mdewé ‘Sulks’ (d. 1827). Potawatomi. Lith. 1838.

Thayendanegea. The Great Captain of the Six Nations – portrait of Thayendanegea (baptised Joseph Brant) (1742–1807). Kanien’keha:ka (Mohawk). Lith, 1838.

Ahyouwaighs. Chief of the Six Nations – portrait of Ahyonwaeghs (baptised John Brant) (1794–1832). Kaninen’keha:ka (Mohawk). Dekarihokenh (sachem/paramount chief) of Mohawk. Lith. 1838.

Nea-math-la. A Seminole Chief – portrait of Namthla ‘Fat Next to Warrior’ (c. 1755–1841). Muskogee (Creek). Lithograph signed ‘AH’ (Alfred Hoffy), 1838.

Mar-ko-me-te. A Menomene Brave – portrait of Markomete ‘Bear’s Oil’. Menominee. Lith. 1838.

A-mis-quam. A Winnebago Brave – portrait of Amisquam ‘Wooden Ladle’. Ho-Chunk (Winnebago). Lith. 1838.

Stum-ma-nu. A Flat-head boy – portrait of Stumanu (European name, William Brooks) (c. 1819–1839). Chinookan or Salish. Lith. 1838.

Le Soldat du Chene. An Osage Chief – portrait of an Osage man known as ‘Le Soldat du Chene’ (Soldier of the Oak). Indigenous name unknown. Lith. 1836.

Pow-a-sheek. A Fox Chief – portrait of Poweshiek ‘Roused Bear’/’He Shakes Off’ (1791–1854). Meskwaki (Fox). Lith. 1837.

Shar-i-tar-ish. A Pawnee Chief – portrait of Sharitarish (d. 1822). Pawnee. Lith. 1841.

Wa-kawn-ha-ka. A Winnebago Chief – portrait of Waukon Decorah (Wakahaga) ‘Snake-skin’ (c.1780–1868). Winnebago (Ho-Chunk). Lith. 1841.

Pes-ke-le-cha-co. A Pawnee Chief – portrait of Peskelechaco. Pawnee.

Hoo-wan-ne-ka. A Winnebago Chief – portrait of Hoowanneka (also spelled Owanichkoh) ‘Little Elk’. Winnebago (Ho-Chunk). Lith. 1841.

Wa-kawn. A Winnebago Chief – portrait of Wakaun ‘Snake’ (d. 1838). Ho-Chunk (Winnebago). Fought in the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811). Lith. 1841

Ka-ta-wa-be-da. A Chippeway Chief – portrait of Katawabeda. Sandy Lake Chippewa/Ojibwe (Gaa-mitaawangaagamaag-ininiwag). Lith. 1841.

Foke-Luste-Hajo. A Seminole. – portrait of Foke Luste Hajo ‘Black Dirt/Clay’. Seminole. Lith., 1842.

John Ridge. A Cherokee – portrait of John Ridge (Ska-tle-loh-skee ‘Yellow Bird’) (c.1802–1839). Cherokee (Anigiduwagi). Lith., 1838.

A-Chippeway-Widow – imagined portrait of a widowed Ojibwe (Chippewa) woman. Lith. Signed ‘RT’, 1838.

Micanopy. A Seminole Chief. – portrait of Micanopy (various spellings) ‘High Chief’, born Sint-chakkee ‘Pond Frequenter’, also known as Hulbutta Hajo ‘Crazy Alligator’ (c.1780–1849). Seminole. Lith. 1838.

Se-loc-ta. A Creek Chief – portrait of Selocta Chinnabby (c.1765–1834) Creek (Muskogee). Lith. 1838.

Kai-pol-e-quah. White Nosed Fox – portrait of Kaipolequa ‘White-nosed Fox’. Sauk (Othâkîawa). Signed 'RT'. Lith. 1838.

Aseola. A Seminole Leader – portrait of Osceola (Asi-yahola), born Billy Powell (1804–1838). Seminole. Lith. 1842.

Yaha-Hajo. A Seminole Chief – portrait of Yaha Hajo ‘Mad Wolf’. Seminole. Lith. 1842.

Spring Frog. A Cherokee Chief – portrait of Tooan Tuh ‘Spring Frog’ (b. c.1754). Cherokee. Lith. 1838

Tshi-zun-hau-kau. A Winebago – portrait of Tshizunhaukau ‘He Who Runs With The deer’. Ho-Chunk (Winnebago). Lith., 1842

Wakechai. A Saukie Chief – portrait of Wakechai ‘Crouching Eagle’. Sauk (Othâkîawa). Signed ‘HD’. Lith. 1842

Ka-napi-ma. An Ottawa Chief – portrait of Kanapima ‘He Who is Talked About’ (European name, Augustin Hamlin) (b. 1813). Odawa (Ottawa). Lithograph after a portrait by Bass Otis. Lith. 1842.